A Grammar of Italian Sign Language (LIS)

Generally speaking, definite determiners are used when the addressee can identify who or what is being talked about.

            In LIS, they are realised through pointing signs directed toward a spatial location. They are usually articulated with a G handshape. Bear in mind that pointing signs are polyfunctional elements in that they can fulfil several grammatical functions: determiners, demonstratives, personal pronouns (LEXICON 3.7.2), locatives (LEXICON 3.7.1), and (in some varieties) possessives (LEXICON 3.7.3). Determining the function of a given pointing sign solely on the basis of its phonological articulation is not always straightforward. The syntactic distribution and the phrasal context may help shed further light on its nature.

            Definite determiners can function either as articles or demonstratives. This functional distinction is reflected in differences in articulation and usage. Definite articles are usually pointing signs with a relaxed position realised quickly and not directed toward a specific point. Their movement cannot undergo path variation (near vs. far).

 

            

            ix(def)

 

The referent associated with the definite article must be clearly identifiable to the addressee. To illustrate this point, we provide below three concrete examples in which definite articles can be found. It is important to note that, in all three cases, the use of the definite article is not compulsory (SYNTAX 4.1.1.4). This optionality is shown in the pairs of sentences below, which differ for the presence/absence of the pointing sign, ix(def).

            A first purpose for using a definite determiner is to refer back to someone (or something) that has been previously mentioned in the discourse. In (a) below, a man is first introduced in the discourse and then he is mentioned again. At the second mentioning, the addressee is already familiar with the referent (man) and identifies it on the basis of the linguistic context.

 

 

 

            a.         man umbrella take

            ‘The man took the umbrella.’

 

 

 

            b.         man ix(def) umbrella take

            ‘The man took the umbrella.’

 

Definite determiners may also be used to something or someone that is easily identifiable in the extra-linguistic context. In the following examples, two friends are doing some handwork together and there are several tools on the table. One asks the other to pass him the hammer. The referent (hammer) is identified through the extra-linguistic context. Indeed, it is visible both to the signer and the addressee.

 

 

 

            a.         hammer ₂give₁

            ‘Give me the hammer!’

 

 

 

            b.         hammer_a ix(def)_{a 2}give₁

            ‘Give me the hammer!’

           

Finally, definite determiners may also be used to refer to a referent which is unique in its genre. In the following examples, the Pope was in Rome and visited the Italian Parliament. The addressee identifies the referent (pope) because it is unique in its genre (similarly to the moon, the engine of a car, and the bride when talking about a wedding).

 

 

 

            a.         pope parliament go

            ‘The Pope went to the Parliament.’

 

 

 

            b.         pope_a ix(def)_a parliament go

            ‘The Pope went to the Parliament.’

 

Like in some other languages, LIS allows for proper nouns to occur with definite articles. As illustrated in the example below, the name sign maria is followed by the article.

 

 

 

                                                             wh

            maria ix(def) bring q_artichoke

            ‘What did Maria bring?’

 

Demonstratives are intrinsically definite, so they do not have an indefinite counterpart. Like articles, demonstratives are realised as pointing signs. Unlike articles, they usually point toward a specific point in the signing space and are articulated with a tense movement.

 

            

            ix(dem)

 

To illustrate, we provide below a sentence including a pointing sign functioning as demonstrative, here glossed as ix(dem).

 

 

 

            book ix(dem) ix₁ buy want ix₁

            ‘I want to buy this book.’ (adapted from Brunelli, 2011: 56)

 

The plural form of demonstratives is usually realised moving the pointing sign through an arc-shaped path on the horizontal plane. This sign is glossed as ix(dem)_arc.

 

 

 

            book ix(dem)_arc ix₁ buy want

            ‘I want to buy these books.’ (adapted from Brunelli, 2011: 50)

 

Demonstratives in LIS can be marked for emphasis through movement reduplication. This form is glossed as ix(dem)++.

 

 

 

            book ix(dem)++ ix₁ buy want ix₁

            ‘I want to buy this very book.’ (adapted from Brunelli, 2011: 50)

 

Unlike articles, demonstratives are obligatory in their contexts. They signal that the referent is directly accessible to the addressee. The relationship between demonstrative and referent can be of two types: deictic or anaphoric. Deictic demonstratives are used to refer to entities present in the extra-linguistic context. For example, Gianni is looking for a chair in the classroom and Maria suggests that he should take the chair located close to her.

 

 

 

            chair ix(dem) take

            ‘Take this chair!’

 

Since deictic demonstratives rely on the surrounding extra-linguistic context, they might refer to entities more or less distant from the signer. The distance between signer and referent is signalled by the extension of the movement of the arm in the signing space. For example, if the chair is close to the signer's body, the movement of the demonstrative is short (proximal demonstrative). On the contrary, if the chair is in a distant location, the demonstrative reflects this distance with a longer movement (distal demonstrative). Proximal (a) and distal (b) demonstratives are exemplified below.

 

             

            a.         chair                           ix(dem)_[proximal]

            ‘This chair’

 

             

            b.         chair                         ix(dem)_[distal]

            ‘That chair’

 

Unlike deictic demonstratives, anaphoric demonstratives are used to refer to entities that are not present in the extra-linguistic context, but have been previously mentioned in the discourse. In the example below, the signer tells a friend that he usually builds lots of different chairs in his lab and that the previous week he built a chair with fire-resistant materials. Later in the discourse, he anaphorically refers back to the fire-resistant chair to specify its value.

 

 

 

            chair_a pe_a ix₁ sell three^hundred euro

            ‘I sold this chair for three hundred euros.’

 

When the demonstrative anaphorically refers to a previously mentioned referent, signers typically use the sign pe. This sign is realised with G handshape and wrist rotation, from supine to prone. pe is shown in isolation below.

 

 

 

            pe

 

Another difference that distinguishes demonstratives from articles is that they can also be produced in isolation, namely without the noun. The pronominal use of demonstratives is addressed in LEXICON 3.7.1.